Applied Scientist- AWS AI
US, CA, Santa Clara
Job summaryAmazon is looking for a passionate, talented, and inventive Applied Scientist with a strong machine learning background to help build industry-leading language technology.Our mission is to provide a delightful experience to Amazon’s customers by pushing the envelope in Natural Language Processing (NLP), Natural Language Understanding (NLU), Dialog management, conversational AI and Machine Learning (ML).As part of our AI team in Amazon AWS, you will work alongside internationally recognized experts to develop novel algorithms and modeling techniques to advance the state-of-the-art in human language technology. Your work will directly impact millions of our customers in the form of products and services, as well as contributing to the wider research community. You will gain hands on experience with Amazon’s heterogeneous text and structured data sources, and large-scale computing resources to accelerate advances in language understanding.We are hiring primarily in Conversational AI / Dialog System Development areas: NLP, NLU, Dialog Management, NLG.This role can be based in NYC, Seattle or Palo Alto.Inclusive Team CultureHere at AWS, we embrace our differences. We are committed to furthering our culture of inclusion. We have ten employee-led affinity groups, reaching 40,000 employees in over 190 chapters globally. We have innovative benefit offerings, and host annual and ongoing learning experiences, including our Conversations on Race and Ethnicity (CORE) and AmazeCon (gender diversity) conferences.Work/Life BalanceOur team puts a high value on work-life balance. It isn’t about how many hours you spend at home or at work; it’s about the flow you establish that brings energy to both parts of your life. We believe striking the right balance between your personal and professional life is critical to life-long happiness and fulfillment. We offer flexibility in working hours and encourage you to find your own balance between your work and personal lives.Mentorship & Career GrowthOur team is dedicated to supporting new members. We have a broad mix of experience levels and tenures, and we’re building an environment that celebrates knowledge sharing and mentorship. Our senior members enjoy one-on-one mentoring and thorough, but kind, code reviews. We care about your career growth and strive to assign projects based on what will help each team member develop into a better-rounded engineer and enable them to take on more complex tasks in the future.
Applied Scientist- AWS AI
US, NY, New York
Job summaryAmazon is looking for a passionate, talented, and inventive Applied Scientist with a strong machine learning background to help build industry-leading language technology.Our mission is to provide a delightful experience to Amazon’s customers by pushing the envelope in Natural Language Processing (NLP), Natural Language Understanding (NLU), Dialog management, conversational AI and Machine Learning (ML).As part of our AI team in Amazon AWS, you will work alongside internationally recognized experts to develop novel algorithms and modeling techniques to advance the state-of-the-art in human language technology. Your work will directly impact millions of our customers in the form of products and services, as well as contributing to the wider research community. You will gain hands on experience with Amazon’s heterogeneous text and structured data sources, and large-scale computing resources to accelerate advances in language understanding.We are hiring primarily in Conversational AI / Dialog System Development areas: NLP, NLU, Dialog Management, NLG.This role can be based in NYC, Seattle or Palo Alto.Inclusive Team CultureHere at AWS, we embrace our differences. We are committed to furthering our culture of inclusion. We have ten employee-led affinity groups, reaching 40,000 employees in over 190 chapters globally. We have innovative benefit offerings, and host annual and ongoing learning experiences, including our Conversations on Race and Ethnicity (CORE) and AmazeCon (gender diversity) conferences.Work/Life BalanceOur team puts a high value on work-life balance. It isn’t about how many hours you spend at home or at work; it’s about the flow you establish that brings energy to both parts of your life. We believe striking the right balance between your personal and professional life is critical to life-long happiness and fulfillment. We offer flexibility in working hours and encourage you to find your own balance between your work and personal lives.Mentorship & Career GrowthOur team is dedicated to supporting new members. We have a broad mix of experience levels and tenures, and we’re building an environment that celebrates knowledge sharing and mentorship. Our senior members enjoy one-on-one mentoring and thorough, but kind, code reviews. We care about your career growth and strive to assign projects based on what will help each team member develop into a better-rounded engineer and enable them to take on more complex tasks in the future.
Applied Scientist, AI Research & Education
US, CA, Santa Clara
Job summaryAWS AI/ML is looking for world class scientists and engineers to join its AI Research and Education group working on building automated ML solutions for planetary-scale sustainability and geospatial applications. Our team's mission is to develop ready-to-use and automated solutions that solve important sustainability and geospatial problems. We live in a time wherein geospatial data, such as climate, agricultural crop yield, weather, landcover, etc., has become ubiquitous. Cloud computing has made it easy to gather and process the data that describes the earth system and are generated by satellites, mobile devices, and IoT devices. Our vision is to bring the best ML/AI algorithms to solve practical environmental and sustainability-related R&D problems at scale. Building these solutions require a solid foundation in machine learning infrastructure and deep learning technologies. The team specializes in developing popular open source software libraries like AutoGluon, GluonCV, GluonNLP, DGL, Apache/MXNet (incubating). Our strategy is to bring the best of ML based automation to the geospatial and sustainability area.We are seeking an experienced Applied Scientist for the team. This is a role that combines science knowledge (around machine learning, computer vision, earth science), technical strength, and product focus. It will be your job to develop ML system and solutions and work closely with the engineering team to ship them to our customers. You will interact closely with our customers and with the academic and research communities. You will be at the heart of a growing and exciting focus area for AWS and work with other acclaimed engineers and world famous scientists. You are also expected to work closely with other applied scientists and demonstrate Amazon Leadership Principles (https://www.amazon.jobs/en/principles). Strong technical skills and experience with machine learning and computer vision are required. Experience working with earth science, mapping, and geospatial data is a plus. Our customers are extremely technical and the solutions we build for them are strongly coupled to technical feasibility.About the teamInclusive Team CultureAt AWS, we embrace our differences. We are committed to furthering our culture of inclusion. We have ten employee-led affinity groups, reaching 40,000 employees in over 190 chapters globally. We have innovative benefit offerings, and host annual and ongoing learning experiences, including our Conversations on Race and Ethnicity (CORE) and AmazeCon (gender diversity) conferences. Amazon’s culture of inclusion is reinforced within our 14 Leadership Principles, which remind team members to seek diverse perspectives, learn and be curious, and earn trust. Work/Life BalanceOur team puts a high value on work-life balance. It isn’t about how many hours you spend at home or at work; it’s about the flow you establish that brings energy to both parts of your life. We believe striking the right balance between your personal and professional life is critical to life-long happiness and fulfillment. We offer flexibility in working hours and encourage you to find your own balance between your work and personal lives.Mentorship & Career GrowthOur team is dedicated to supporting new members. We have a broad mix of experience levels and tenures, and we’re building an environment that celebrates knowledge sharing and mentorship. Our senior members enjoy one-on-one mentoring. We care about your career growth and strive to assign projects based on what will help each team member develop into a better-rounded scientist and enable them to take on more complex tasks in the future.Interested in this role? Reach out to the recruiting team with questions or apply directly via amazon.jobs.
Applied Scientist, AI Research & Education
US, CA, Santa Clara
Job summaryAWS AI/ML is looking for world class scientists and engineers to join its AI Research and Education group working on building automated ML solutions for planetary-scale sustainability and geospatial applications. Our team's mission is to develop ready-to-use and automated solutions that solve important sustainability and geospatial problems. We live in a time wherein geospatial data, such as climate, agricultural crop yield, weather, landcover, etc., has become ubiquitous. Cloud computing has made it easy to gather and process the data that describes the earth system and are generated by satellites, mobile devices, and IoT devices. Our vision is to bring the best ML/AI algorithms to solve practical environmental and sustainability-related R&D problems at scale. Building these solutions require a solid foundation in machine learning infrastructure and deep learning technologies. The team specializes in developing popular open source software libraries like AutoGluon, GluonCV, GluonNLP, DGL, Apache/MXNet (incubating). Our strategy is to bring the best of ML based automation to the geospatial and sustainability area.We are seeking an experienced Applied Scientist for the team. This is a role that combines science knowledge (around machine learning, computer vision, earth science), technical strength, and product focus. It will be your job to develop ML system and solutions and work closely with the engineering team to ship them to our customers. You will interact closely with our customers and with the academic and research communities. You will be at the heart of a growing and exciting focus area for AWS and work with other acclaimed engineers and world famous scientists. You are also expected to work closely with other applied scientists and demonstrate Amazon Leadership Principles (https://www.amazon.jobs/en/principles). Strong technical skills and experience with machine learning and computer vision are required. Experience working with earth science, mapping, and geospatial data is a plus. Our customers are extremely technical and the solutions we build for them are strongly coupled to technical feasibility.About the teamInclusive Team CultureAt AWS, we embrace our differences. We are committed to furthering our culture of inclusion. We have ten employee-led affinity groups, reaching 40,000 employees in over 190 chapters globally. We have innovative benefit offerings, and host annual and ongoing learning experiences, including our Conversations on Race and Ethnicity (CORE) and AmazeCon (gender diversity) conferences. Amazon’s culture of inclusion is reinforced within our 14 Leadership Principles, which remind team members to seek diverse perspectives, learn and be curious, and earn trust. Work/Life BalanceOur team puts a high value on work-life balance. It isn’t about how many hours you spend at home or at work; it’s about the flow you establish that brings energy to both parts of your life. We believe striking the right balance between your personal and professional life is critical to life-long happiness and fulfillment. We offer flexibility in working hours and encourage you to find your own balance between your work and personal lives.Mentorship & Career GrowthOur team is dedicated to supporting new members. We have a broad mix of experience levels and tenures, and we’re building an environment that celebrates knowledge sharing and mentorship. Our senior members enjoy one-on-one mentoring. We care about your career growth and strive to assign projects based on what will help each team member develop into a better-rounded scientist and enable them to take on more complex tasks in the future.Interested in this role? Reach out to the recruiting team with questions or apply directly via amazon.jobs.
Senior Applied Scientist - Machine Learning, Personalization, Recommendations, Machine Learning, Causal Inference, Personalization
US, WA, Seattle
Job summaryHow can we create a rich, data-driven shopping experience on Amazon? How do we build data models that helps us innovate different ways to enhance customer experience? How do we combine the world's greatest online shopping dataset with Amazon's computing power to create models that deeply understand our customers? Recommendations at Amazon is a way to help customers discover products. Our team's stated mission is to "grow each customer’s relationship with Amazon by leveraging our deep understanding of them to provide relevant and timely product, program, and content recommendations". We strive to better understand how customers shop on Amazon (and elsewhere) and build recommendations models to streamline customers' shopping experience by showing the right products at the right time. Understanding the complexities of customers' shopping needs and helping them explore the depth and breadth of Amazon's catalog is a challenge we take on every day. Using Amazon’s large-scale computing resources you will ask research questions about customer behavior, build models to generate recommendations, and run these models directly on the retail website. You will participate in the Amazon ML community and mentor Applied Scientists and software development engineers with a strong interest in and knowledge of ML. Your work will directly benefit customers and the retail business and you will measure the impact using scientific tools. We are looking for passionate, hard-working, and talented Applied scientist who have experience building mission critical, high volume applications that customers love. You will have an enormous opportunity to make a large impact on the design, architecture, and implementation of cutting edge products used every day, by people you know.Key job responsibilitiesScaling state of the art techniques to Amazon-scaleWorking independently and collaborating with SDEs to deploy models to productionDeveloping long-term roadmaps for the team's scientific agendaDesigning experiments to measure business impact of the team's effortsMentoring scientists in the departmentContributing back to the machine learning science community
Applied Scientist
US, NY, New York City
Job summaryAmazon Web Services is looking for world class scientists to join the Security Analytics and AI Research team within AWS Security Services. This group is entrusted with researching and developing core data mining and machine learning algorithms for various AWS security services like GuardDuty (https://aws.amazon.com/guardduty/) and Macie (https://aws.amazon.com/macie/). In this group, you will invent and implement innovative solutions for never-before-solved problems. If you have passion for security and experience with large scale machine learning problems, this will be an exciting opportunity.The AWS Security Services team builds technologies that help customers strengthen their security posture and better meet security requirements in the AWS Cloud. The team interacts with security researchers to codify our own learnings and best practices and make them available for customers. We are building massively scalable and globally distributed security systems to power next generation services.Inclusive Team Culture Here at AWS, we embrace our differences. We are committed to furthering our culture of inclusion. We have ten employee-led affinity groups, reaching 40,000 employees in over 190 chapters globally. We have innovative benefit offerings, and host annual and ongoing learning experiences, including our Conversations on Race and Ethnicity (CORE) and AmazeCon (gender diversity) conferences. Amazon’s culture of inclusion is reinforced within our 14 Leadership Principles, which remind team members to seek diverse perspectives, learn and be curious, and earn trust. Work/Life Balance Our team puts a high value on work-life balance. It isn’t about how many hours you spend at home or at work; it’s about the flow you establish that brings energy to both parts of your life. We believe striking the right balance between your personal and professional life is critical to life-long happiness and fulfillment. We offer flexibility in working hours and encourage you to find your own balance between your work and personal lives. Mentorship & Career Growth Our team is dedicated to supporting new members. We have a broad mix of experience levels and tenures, and we’re building an environment that celebrates knowledge sharing and mentorship. We care about your career growth and strive to assign projects based on what will help each team member develop and enable them to take on more complex tasks in the future.A day in the lifeAbout the hiring groupJob responsibilities* Rapidly design, prototype and test many possible hypotheses in a high-ambiguity environment, making use of both quantitative and business judgment.* Collaborate with software engineering teams to integrate successful experiments into large scale, highly complex production services.* Report results in a scientifically rigorous way.* Interact with security engineers, product managers and related domain experts to dive deep into the types of challenges that we need innovative solutions for.
Applied Scientist I
US, WA, Seattle
Job summaryDo you want to join an innovative team of scientists who use machine learning and statistical techniques to help Amazon provide the best customer experience by preventing eCommerce fraud? Are you excited by the prospect of analyzing and modeling terabytes of data and creating state-of-the-art algorithms to solve real world problems? Do you like to own end-to-end business problems/metrics and directly impact the profitability of the company? Do you enjoy collaborating in a diverse team environment?If yes, then you may be a great fit to join the Amazon Buyer Risk Prevention (BRP) Machine Learning group. We are looking for a talented scientist who is passionate to build advanced algorithmic systems that help manage safety of millions of transactions every day.Major responsibilities Use statistical and machine learning techniques to create scalable risk management systems Learning and understanding large amounts of Amazon’s historical business data for specific instances of risk or broader risk trends Design, development and evaluation of highly innovative models for risk management Working closely with software engineering teams to drive real-time model implementations and new feature creations Working closely with operations staff to optimize risk management operations, Establishing scalable, efficient, automated processes for large scale data analyses, model development, model validation and model implementation Tracking general business activity and providing clear, compelling management reporting on a regular basis Research and implement novel machine learning and statistical approaches
Research Scientist, Research Scientist, SCOT Forward Looking Inventory Planning
US, WA, Bellevue
Job summaryAre you up to the task of delivering innovative solutions that manages a supply chain of millions of unique products involving hundreds of thousands of suppliers and tens of millions of customers around the world? Amazon’s Strategic Sourcing team is looking for Senior Operations Research Scientists to build Amazon’s next generation of inventory planning and supply chain solutions. We are part of Supply Chain Optimization Technologies (SCOT): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ncwsr1Of6Cw&feature=youtu.beOur systems use real time, large scale optimization and reinforcement learning techniques to automatically procure and source the product from suppliers and optimize the flow of goods across the supply chain to minimize the cost and lead time for customers. Our team is focused on saving hundreds of millions of dollars using cutting edge science, machine learning, and scalable distributed software on the Cloud that automates and optimizes supply chain under the uncertainty of demand, pricing and supply. We are unique in that we’re simultaneously developing the science of supply chain planning and solving some of the toughest computational challenges at Amazon. Unlike many companies who buy existing off-the-shelf planning systems, we are responsible for studying, designing, and building systems to suit Amazon’s needs. Our team members have an opportunity to be on the forefront of supply chain thought leadership by working on some of the most difficult problems in the industry with some of the best product managers, research scientists/statisticians/economists and software developers in the business.We are seeking an experienced research scientist. Candidate will be responsible for developing solutions to better manage/optimize the flow of inventory in Amazon's network world wide. This position will focus on identifying opportunities and building the next generation of optimization, Reinforcement learning and Multi-arm bandit algorithms to mitigate future risk to Supply and optimally procure inventory over long horizons. This position requires superior analytical thinkers, able to quickly approach large ambiguous problems and apply their technical and statistical knowledge to identify opportunities for further research. You should be able to independently mine and analyze data, and be able to use any necessary programming and statistical analysis software to do so. Successful candidates must thrive in fast-paced environments which encourage collaborative and creative problem solving, be able to measure and estimate risks, constructively critique peer research, and align research focuses with the Amazon’s strategic needs.In joining our team, you'll enjoy a highly competitive salary, growth, working closely with smart engineers and researchers along with other benefits. We have a creative and comfortable work environment and this is your opportunity to be part of a fast-paced and growing technology team.Key job responsibilitiesSupply chain management, optimization, operations research, machine learning, reinforcement learning, Multi-arm bandit
Applied Scientist, Shopping Experiences Applied Science
CA, ON, Toronto
Job summaryAmazon Advertising is one of Amazon's fastest growing and most profitable businesses, responsible for defining and delivering a collection of advertising products that drive discovery and sales. Our products and solutions are strategically important to enable our Retail and Marketplace businesses to drive long-term growth. We deliver billions of ad impressions and millions of clicks and break fresh ground in product and technical innovations every day!Excited about the future of brand-centric advertising and shopping on Amazon? Want to bring the best, emerging, and trending brands to shoppers, while driving strong value to brands? Amazon is investing heavily in building a world class advertising business and we are responsible for defining and delivering a collection of self-service performance advertising products that drive discovery and sales. Our products are strategically important to our Retail and Marketplace businesses driving long term growth. We deliver billions of ad impressions and millions of clicks daily and are breaking fresh ground to create world-class products. We are highly motivated, collaborative and fun-loving with an entrepreneurial spirit and bias for action. With a broad mandate to experiment and innovate, we are growing at an unprecedented rate with a seemingly endless range of new opportunities.Brand Advertising & Shopping Experience (BASE) org is looking for an Applied Scientist with experience in developing and productizing state-of-the-art predictive algorithms. Our goal is to create personalized engaging shopping experiences with a suite of Brand Shopping Experience products (e.g., Stores, Posts and Brand Follow) that will incentivize brands’ discovery and the creation of customer-brand relationships.You will focus on the exciting science problems in Amazon Brand Stores. The value that Stores provides to customers is the ability to browse and discover new and best-selling products curated by their favorite brands, while aiding with discovery of new brands. The Amazon Brand Stores program is becoming increasingly important and is at a strategic intersection between advertising and retail. We provide a compelling destination for brand advertising campaigns, and also enable stores to be organically discovered through the Amazon shopping journey. We operate sophisticated front-end, API and big data technologies across all of Amazon, and we partner with teams across Amazon retail, advertisement, marketplace and core shopping. Millions of shoppers enjoy and interact with our products. Our team is a startup-minded, energetic and passionate group of scientists and engineers who care deeply about building amazing products that shoppers as well as brands love. We are curious about new technologies, collaborative, agile, and customer centric.As an Applied Scientist on this team, you will: Drive end-to-end Machine Learning projects that have a high degree of ambiguity, scale, complexity.Research, build, test, and deploy low latency machine learning components into production. You will be owner of the solutions that you create. And these solutions will drive engagement metrics that will directly impact our customers’ shopping experiences, while generating increased brand awareness and customer-brand relationships.Perform hands-on analysis and modeling of enormous data sets to develop insights that increase traffic monetization and merchandise sales, without compromising the shopper experience.Build machine learning models, perform proof-of-concept, experiment, optimize, and deploy your models into production; work closely with software engineers to assist in productionizing your ML models.Run A/B experiments, gather data, and perform statistical analysis.Establish scalable, efficient, automated processes for large-scale data analysis, machine-learning model development, model validation and serving.Research new and innovative machine learning approaches.Recruit Applied Scientists to the team and provide mentorship.Why you will love this opportunity: Amazon is investing heavily in building a world-class advertising business. This team defines and delivers a collection of advertising products that drive discovery and sales. Our solutions generate billions in revenue and drive long-term growth for Amazon’s Retail and Marketplace businesses. We deliver billions of ad impressions, millions of clicks daily, and break fresh ground to create world-class products. We are a highly motivated, collaborative, and fun-loving team with an entrepreneurial spirit - with a broad mandate to experiment and innovate.Impact and Career Growth: You will invent new experiences and influence customer-facing shopping experiences to help suppliers grow their retail business and the auction dynamics that leverage native advertising; this is your opportunity to work within the fastest-growing businesses across all of Amazon! Define a long-term science vision for our advertising business, driven from our customers' needs, translating that direction into specific plans for research and applied scientists, as well as engineering and product teams. This role combines science leadership, organizational ability, technical strength, product focus, and business understanding.Team video https://youtu.be/zD_6Lzw8raE Key job responsibilitiesThe Shopping Experiences Applied Science team (within BASE) builds end-to-end recommendations systems for organic content in the Amazon Advertising org. Our team owns research, development and deployment into production of statistical and machine learning algorithms for automatic insight generation, content selection and content ranking to incentivize Brand discovery and to foster Brand-Customer relationships. Our scientists analyze data, generate insights, and develop statistical and machine learning models to optimize business metrics such as customer engagement, Brand discovery metrics, Brand loyalty metrics, and conversion rates. They design, develop and deploy into production relevance and engagement models, contextual multiarm bandits, and other components to optimize for diversity and engagement. They leverage computer vision algorithms to evaluate content quality and performance.
Data Scientist - SyRT measurement, CMO
US, CA, Irvine
Job summaryThe Customer Behavior Analytics (CBA) organization owns Amazon’s insights pipeline from data collection to deep analytics. We aspire to be the place where Amazon teams come for answers, a trusted source for data and insights that empower our systems and business leaders to make better decisions. Our outputs shape Amazons marketing teams’ decisions and thus how Amazon customers see, use, and value their experience.CMO (Campaign measurement and Optimization) team within CBA org's mission is to make Amazon’s marketing the most measurably effective in the world. Our long-term objective is to measure the incremental impact of all Amazon’s marketing investments on consumer perceptions, actions, and sales. This requires measuring Amazon’s marketing comparably and consistently across channels, business teams and countries using a comprehensive approach that integrates all Paid, Owned and Earned marketing activity. As the experts on marketing performance, we will lead the Amazon worldwide marketing community by providing critical global insights that can power marketing best practices and tenets globally.Are you passionate about Deep Learning, Causal Inference, and Big Data Systems? Interested in building new state-of-the-art measurement products at petabyte scale? Be part of a team of industry leading experts that operates one of the largest big data and machine learning stacks at Amazon. Amazon is leveraging its highly unique data and applying the latest machine learning and big data technologies to change the way marketers optimize their advertising spend. Our campaign measurement and reporting systems apply these technologies on many billions of events in near real time.You'll be one of the scientists tackling some of the hardest problems in advertising; measuring ads incrementality, providing estimated counterfactuals and predicting the success of advertising strategies for omni-channel campaign measurement. Working with a cross-functional team of product managers, program managers, economists and engineers you will develop state of the art causal learning, deep learning, and predictive techniques to help marketers understand the performance of their omni-channel campaigns and optimize their spends.Some things you'll do in this role:Lead full life-cycle Data Science solutions from beginning to end.Deliver with independence on challenging large-scale problems with complexity and ambiguity.Write code (Python, R, Scala, SQL, etc.) to obtain, manipulate, and analyze data.Build Machine Learning and statistical models to solve specific business problems.Retrieve, synthesize, and present critical data in a format that is immediately useful to answering specific questions or improving system performance.Analyze historical data to identify trends and support optimal decision making.Apply statistical and machine learning knowledge to specific business problems and data.Formalize assumptions about how our systems should work, create statistical definitions of outliers, and develop methods to systematically identify outliers. Work out why such examples are outliers and define if any actions needed.Given anecdotes about anomalies or generate automatic scripts to define anomalies, deep dive to explain why they happen, and identify fixes.Build decision-making models and propose effective solutions for the business problems you define.Conduct written and verbal presentations to share insights to audiences of varying levels of technical sophistication.Impact and Career Growth: You will invent solutions that can make billion dollar impact for Amazon as an advertiser. Define a long-term science vision for our business, driven from our customers' needs, translating that direction into specific plans for research and applied scientists, as well as engineering and product teams. This role combines science leadership, organizational ability, technical strength, product focus, and business understanding.Key job responsibilitiesDive deep into petabyte-scale data to drive insights, identify machine-learning modeling gaps and business opportunitiesEstablish scalable, efficient, automated processes for large-scale data analysisRun regular A/B experiments, gather data, and perform statistical analysisWork with scientists, engineers and product partners to develop new machine learning approaches, and monetization strategiesConduct written and verbal presentation to share insights and recommendations to audiences of varying levels of technical sophistication